Chapter 11: Out of Empty Space

Newton was the first to consider: Calder and Lahav 2008 discuss how Newton’s work alludes at least to some aspects of the effects of “dark energy.”

If one attempts to calculate: Norton 1999 discusses this problem in detail.

a few physicists attempted: In particular, von Seeliger 1895 and Neumann 1896. Einstein may have been partially inspired by their work in introducing the cosmological constant.

if the size of the universe somehow: This model was suggested by Petrosian, Salpeter, and Szekeres 1967. However, a few years later, Petrosian showed that the model also predicted a decline in the brightness of more distant quasars, contrary to observations.