216 ORIENTALISM to any of us who have attempted to study geography it is known that the moment you diverge from the geographical field you find yourself crossing the frontiers of geology, zoology, ethnology, chemistry, physics, and almost all the kindred sciences. Therefore we are justified in saying that geography is one of the first and foremost of the sciences: that it is part of the equipment that is necessary for a proper conception of citizenship, and is an indispensable adjunct to the production of a public man.'5 Geography was essentially the material underpinning for knowledge about the Orient. All the latent and unchanging characteristics of the Orient stood upon, were rooted in, its geography. Thus on the one hand the geographical Orient nourished its inhabitants, guaranteed their characteristics, and defined their specificity; on the other hand, the geographical Orient solicited the West’s attention, even as —by one of those paradoxes revealed so frequently by organized knowledge—East was East and West was West. The cosmopolitanism of geography was, in Curzon’s mind, its universal importance to the whole of the West, whose relationship to the rest of the world was one of frank covetousness. Yet geographical appetite could also take on the moral neutrality of an epistemological impulse to find out, to settle upon, to uncover—as when in Heart of Darkness Mariow confesses to having a passion for maps. I would look for hours at South America, or Africa, or Australia, and lose myself in all the glories of exploration. At that time there were many blank spaces on the earth, and when I saw one that looked particularly inviting on a map (but they all look that) I would put my finger on it and say, When I grow up I will go there.1% Seventy years or so before Marlow said this, it did not trouble Lamartine that what on a map was a blank space was inhabited by natives; nor, theoretically, had there been any reservation in the mind of Emer de Vattel, the Swiss-Prussian authority on international law, when in_1758 he invited European states to take Possession of territory. inhabited only by mere wandering tribes.'? The impostant_thing was to dignify simple conquest with an idea, to. turn the appetite for more geographical space into a theory about the special relationship between geography on the one hand and civilized of uncivilized peoples on the other. But to these rationalizations there was also a distinctively French contribution.

Orientalism Now 217 By the end of the nineteenth century, political and intellectual circumstances coincided sufficiently in France to make geography, and geographical speculation (in both senses of that word), an attractive national pastime. The general climate of opinion in Europe was propitious, certainly the successes of British imperialism spoke loudly enough for themselves. However, Britain always seemed to France and to French thinkers on the subject to block even a relatively successful French imperial role in the Orient. Before the Franco-Prussian War there was a good deal of wishful political thinking about the Orient, and it was not confined to poets and novelists. Here, for instance, is Saint-Marc Girardin writing in the Revue des Deux Mondes on March 15, 1862: La France a beaucoup 4 faire en Orient, parce que l’Orient attend beaucoup drelle. Il lui demande méme plus qu’elle ne peut faire; il lui remettrait vojontiers le soin entier de son avenir, ce qui serait pour la France et pour l’Orient un grand danger: pour la France, parce que, disposée a prendre en mains la cause des populations souffrantes, elle se charge le plus souvent de plus d'obligations qu’elle n’en peut remplir; pour l’Orient, parce que tout peuple qui attend sa destinée de l’étranger n’a jamais qu’une condition précaire et qu’il n’y a de salut pour les nations que celui qu’elles se font elles-mémes.** Of such views as this Disraeli would doubtless have said, as he often did, that France had only “sentimental interests” in Syria (which is the “Orient” of which Girardin was writing). The fiction of “populations souffrantes” had of course been used by Napoleon when he appealed to the Egyptians on their behalf against the Turks and for Islam. During the thirties, forties, fifties, and sixties the suffering populations