3. The Nature of the Conflict and the Flight

A critical analysis of the Palestinian exodus must accurately and, at times, graphically, illustrate precisely the nature of the conflict which led to the exodus. Specifically, this criterion would deal with describing the fear and terror felt by the civilian population, the mutilations and atrocities which were a regular feature of the war and the nature of the flight itself - one of mass panic.

One of the greatest weaknesses of the traditional Zionist argument, which attempts to explain the exodus as a careful, calculated and organized plan by various Arab authorities, is that it cannot account for the totally disorganized way in which the exodus occurred. [31] Indeed as John Glubb has observed,

Voluntary emigrants do not leave their homes with only the clothes they stand up in. People who have decided to move house do not do so in such a hurry that they lose other members of their family - husband losing sight of his wife, or parents of their children. The fact is that the majority left in panic flight. [32] 

The 1948 war itself was replete with an abnormal degree of terror; as described by Avnery, "the rules of civilized warfare did not apply. It was rather a violent collision between two movements of almost religious fervour - one, colonizing Zionism, the other, xenophobic nationalism. Each sought to destroy the other. This kind of war degenerates easily into a battle of extermination." [33] 

The terror felt by the population was helped along by Zionist psychological tactics. Radio broadcasts sought to undermine morale and give the impression that Palestinian resistance was futile. Civilian populations were warned of alleged impending epidemics as well as alleged dissension in the ranks of the Arab forces. [34] Later, rumours were spread by the Israeli forces that they possessed the atomic bomb. [35] 

Given the nature of the fighting, the increasing terror of the population and the Zionist efforts to build on that terror, it is inconceivable that the exodus would be anything but one of mass panic and uncontrollable flight. Despite efforts by Arab authorities to halt this tide, the Palestinians fled in terror.

Walid Khalidi, in discussing the exodus from Haifa, describes how "hundreds of people blocked the narrow lanes and pushed and heaved against one another, each trying to save himself and his children. Many children, women and old men fainted and were trampled by the surging crowds." [36] This report is also mentioned in Childers' article, which adds, "the flight to the harbour... with drowning in overloaded boats was accompanied by clearly directed Zionist firing on them [the refugees]." [37]

Fear and panic were as prevalent in the countryside as in the large cities, such as Haifa. Nafez Nazzal, in his description of the Galilean exodus, gives as an example the flight from one village: "The villagers of Ghuweir Abu-Shusha were persuaded by the neighbouring Jewish mukhtars to leave to Syria.... The villagers heard how ruthless and cruel the Jews were to the people of Deir Yassin and the nearby village of Nasr ed Din. They were not prepared to withstand the Jewish attack and decided to accept their neighbours' advice and leave. " [38] Even Gabbay, whose analysis is, on the whole, critical of the Palestinian position, agrees that "the way in which groups and even members of the same families fled, individually and in different directions, can give us an idea of the degree of panic and horror which was felt amongst them." [39] 

Finally there is the testimony of Count Bernadotte, the UN mediator in Palestine, who reported that "the exodus of the Palestinian Arabs resulted from panic created by fighting in their communities, by rumours concerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, or expulsion. Almost the whole of the Arab population fled or was expelled from the area under Jewish occupation." [40] 

In short, the overwhelmingly disastrous and horrifying nature of the war in Palestine, breeding numerous atrocities and massacres, giving rise to mass fear and panic, and aided by Zionist efforts to exploit to the fullest this growing fear and panic, created not an orderly exodus but a mass flight of civilians throughout the country. One must clearly understand the type of "evacuation" this was. Thus the sources which attempt to portray an orderly "departure" of the Palestinian population, for whatever reason this "departure" is alleged to have taken place, cannot be viewed with the same amount of credence as those which accurately describe the real terror that attended the exodus.

31 For example, Syrkin states, "the development of the exodus as well as Arab statements indicate that the flight was at first stimulated by the Arab leaders to inflame the populace (since the Palestinian Arabs had shown little stomach for battle) to create an artificial 'refugee' problem which would elicit world sympathy to counterbalance the claims of Jewish refugees and to prepare the ground for invasion by the Arab states who could then appear as the saviours of their brethren. An additional reason was no doubt the desire to evacuate Arab civilians from territory which the Arab states expected to bomb." Syrkin, p. 24. The portrayal of a deliberate plan to induce the Palestinians to leave is also given in Schectman, pp. 6-7, and Kohn, p. 872.

32 John Glubb, A Soldier With The Arabs (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 19 5 7), p. 251. 

33 Avnery, p. 220. Commenting on the Deir Yassin massacre, Avnery says: "... while Deir Yassin became a symbol, it was by no means an isolated incident. Killings of this nature had been perpetrated by both sides previously and many more took place subsequently.... Civilians of both sides expected to be annihilated if they fell into enemy hands" (p. 223).

34 Zionist terror tactics are discussed in Khalidi, "Why Did the Palestinians Leave? " p. 24, as well as Childers, "The Wordless Wish," pp. 186-89. Both cite extensive evidence of Zionist pressure tactics.

35 Childers, "The Wordless Wish," p. 187.

36 Walid Khalidi, "The XFall of Haifa," in Middle East Forum, Vol. XXXV, No. 10 (December 1959), p. 30.

37 Childers, "The Wordless Wish," pp. 188-89.

38 Nafez Nazzal, p. 220. In discussing the exodus from Tiberias, Nazzal writes that "the panic-stricken Arabs accepted the offer [of safe conduct by the British] because they had heard what had happened at Deir Yassin and in the adjoining villages of El Manara and Nasr ed Din" (p. 221). 

39 Gabbay, P. 93.

40 This observation by Count Folke Bernadotte is frequently cited not only as an example of descriptions of panic, but also as evidence that the Zionists pursued a policy of expulsion. UN Progress Report, September 16, 1948, part one, paragraph 6; part three, paragraph 1.

3. Sifat Konflik dan Pelarian  

Analisis kritis tentang eksodus Palestina harus menggambarkan secara tepat, bahkan terkadang secara grafis, sifat konflik yang menyebabkan eksodus tersebut. Kriteria ini khususnya berkaitan dengan rasa takut dan teror yang dialami penduduk sipil, mutilasi dan kekejaman yang menjadi ciri perang, serta sifat pelarian itu sendiri—yakni kepanikan massal.  

Salah satu kelemahan terbesar dari argumen Zionis tradisional, yang berusaha menjelaskan eksodus sebagai rencana terukur dan terorganisir oleh otoritas Arab, adalah bahwa ia tidak dapat menjelaskan betapa tidak teraturnya eksodus itu terjadi. [31] Seperti dicatat John Glubb:  

“Para emigran sukarela tidak meninggalkan rumah hanya dengan pakaian yang melekat di badan. Orang yang memutuskan pindah rumah tidak melakukannya dengan tergesa-gesa sampai kehilangan anggota keluarga lain—suami kehilangan istri, atau orang tua kehilangan anak. Faktanya, mayoritas pergi dalam pelarian panik.” [32]  

Perang 1948 itu sendiri penuh dengan tingkat teror yang abnormal; seperti dijelaskan Avnery, “aturan perang beradab tidak berlaku. Itu lebih merupakan benturan keras antara dua gerakan dengan semangat hampir religius—satu, Zionisme kolonial; yang lain, nasionalisme xenofobik. Keduanya berusaha saling menghancurkan. Perang jenis ini mudah merosot menjadi pertarungan pemusnahan.” [33]  

Rasa takut penduduk semakin diperparah oleh taktik psikologis Zionis. Siaran radio bertujuan melemahkan moral dan memberi kesan bahwa perlawanan Palestina sia-sia. Penduduk sipil diperingatkan tentang epidemi yang akan datang maupun perpecahan di barisan pasukan Arab. [34] Kemudian, pasukan Israel menyebarkan rumor bahwa mereka memiliki bom atom. [35]  

Dengan sifat pertempuran, meningkatnya teror di kalangan penduduk, dan upaya Zionis memanfaatkan ketakutan itu, sulit membayangkan eksodus terjadi selain sebagai pelarian panik massal yang tidak terkendali. Meski otoritas Arab berusaha menghentikan gelombang ini, orang-orang Palestina tetap lari dalam ketakutan.  

Walid Khalidi, ketika membahas eksodus dari Haifa, menggambarkan bagaimana “ratusan orang memadati lorong-lorong sempit dan saling dorong, masing-masing berusaha menyelamatkan diri dan anak-anaknya. Banyak anak-anak, perempuan, dan orang tua pingsan lalu terinjak-injak oleh kerumunan yang berdesakan.” [36] Laporan ini juga disebutkan dalam artikel Childers, yang menambahkan bahwa “pelarian ke pelabuhan... dengan banyak yang tenggelam di perahu yang kelebihan muatan disertai tembakan Zionis yang diarahkan kepada mereka [para pengungsi].” [37]  

Ketakutan dan kepanikan tidak hanya terjadi di kota besar seperti Haifa, tetapi juga di pedesaan. Nafez Nazzal, dalam deskripsinya tentang eksodus Galilea, mencontohkan pelarian dari sebuah desa: “Penduduk desa Ghuweir Abu-Shusha diyakinkan oleh mukhtar Yahudi tetangga mereka untuk pergi ke Suriah... Penduduk desa mendengar betapa kejamnya orang Yahudi terhadap penduduk Deir Yassin dan desa terdekat Nasr ed Din. Mereka tidak siap menghadapi serangan Yahudi dan memutuskan mengikuti saran tetangganya untuk pergi.” [38] Bahkan Gabbay, yang umumnya kritis terhadap posisi Palestina, mengakui bahwa “cara kelompok-kelompok dan bahkan anggota keluarga yang sama melarikan diri, secara terpisah dan ke arah berbeda, memberi gambaran tentang tingkat kepanikan dan ketakutan yang mereka alami.” [39]  

Akhirnya ada kesaksian Count Bernadotte, mediator PBB di Palestina, yang melaporkan bahwa “eksodus orang Arab Palestina terjadi akibat kepanikan yang ditimbulkan oleh pertempuran di komunitas mereka, oleh rumor tentang tindakan teror nyata atau yang diduga, atau akibat pengusiran. Hampir seluruh populasi Arab melarikan diri atau diusir dari wilayah yang diduduki Yahudi.” [40]  

Singkatnya, sifat perang di Palestina yang amat menghancurkan dan mengerikan, yang melahirkan banyak kekejaman dan pembantaian, memunculkan rasa takut dan panik massal, serta diperburuk oleh upaya Zionis memanfaatkannya, melahirkan bukan eksodus yang teratur, melainkan pelarian massal penduduk sipil di seluruh negeri. Harus dipahami dengan jelas jenis “evakuasi” yang terjadi. Karena itu, sumber-sumber yang mencoba menggambarkan “keberangkatan” penduduk Palestina secara teratur, dengan alasan apa pun, tidak bisa diberi bobot yang sama dengan sumber-sumber yang akurat menggambarkan teror nyata yang menyertai eksodus.  

[31] Misalnya, Syrkin, hlm. 24; Schectman, hlm. 6–7; dan Kohn, hlm. 872.  
[32] John Glubb, *A Soldier With The Arabs* (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1957), hlm. 251.  
[33] Avnery, hlm. 220. Tentang pembantaian Deir Yassin, Avnery menulis: “... meski Deir Yassin menjadi simbol, itu bukan peristiwa yang terisolasi. Pembunuhan semacam ini telah dilakukan kedua pihak sebelumnya dan banyak lagi yang terjadi kemudian.... Penduduk sipil dari kedua pihak berharap dimusnahkan jika jatuh ke tangan musuh” (hlm. 223).  
[34] Khalidi, “Why Did the Palestinians Leave?”, hlm. 24; Childers, *The Wordless Wish*, hlm. 186–189.  
[35] Childers, *The Wordless Wish*, hlm. 187.  
[36] Walid Khalidi, “The Fall of Haifa,” *Middle East Forum*, Vol. XXXV, No. 10 (Desember 1959), hlm. 30.  
[37] Childers, *The Wordless Wish*, hlm. 188–189.  
[38] Nafez Nazzal, hlm. 220–221.  
[39] Gabbay, hlm. 93.  
[40] UN Progress Report, 16 September 1948, bagian satu, paragraf 6; bagian tiga, paragraf 1.