2. The Three Phases

The Palestinian exodus began soon after the UN Partition Resolution was passed on November 29, 1947, and continued even after the Armistice Agreements were signed between Israel and the Arab states in early and mid-1949. It is impossible to understand the exodus without examining it in phases, determining who left, what their motivations were for leaving, and who wanted them out in each phase. Although there is some overlap, nearly all the authors who distinguish phases speak of them as follows: Phase One, from November 29, 1947 to mid-March 1948; Phase Two, from late March to May 15, 1948, and Phase Three, from May 15, 1948 onwards. [20] 

In the first phase, the number of Palestinians who left was small when taken as a percentage of the total population who eventually were displaced. Estimates run as high as 30,000, but when compared to a total of 700,000, this was clearly a minor wave. [21] Most of the sources agree that this was a mov7ement of upper and middle-class Palestinians, whose motivation was to temporarily absent themselves from the growing chaos in Palestine. It has been noted that well-to-do Arabs had taken an "extended vacation" to Lebanon or Egypt in the earlier fighting of 1936-39. With this option open, it should not be surprising that many who had the opportunity to leave would do so again. [22] 

In this same period, the Zionists may have had some motivation for preventing the exodus from becoming widespread. The Zionists were determined to prove to world opinion that the Partition Resolution was reasonable and workable. Second thoughts already were being expressed by both Britain and the US as to the advisability of turning over nearly half of Palestine to the Zionists - an area in which 46 percent of the population would still be Arab. The violent Arab reaction to the Partition Plan and the willingness of the local population to resist caused second thoughts at the UN and elsewhere, thoughts which the Zionists were anxious to dispel. However in examining the writings there are conflicting reports of Zionist actions. Avnery and Gabbay state that as events were getting progressively worse, the Zionists engaged in a holding pattern, while Childers maintains that even at this point, the population was being intimidated by psychologically demoralizing broadcasts and other warnings. In any event, it can be safely said that the Zionists did not encourage large scale emigration during the first phase. [23] 

The first phase ended with the US announcement to the United Nations that it was changing its support from the partition plan to a trusteeship for Palestine. Although the writings differ on the motivations for the exodus in this new phase, it is clear that it was in this period, late March to mid-May, that the first main exodus took place.

The traditional Zionist sources do not distinguish phases; nonetheless it is usually to this period which they attribute the Arab leaders' alleged calls for a mass evacuation. [24] As stated, Childers' research demolished much of this argument by proving that, if anything, the population was being urged to remain. In fact, it was at this time, before the Mandate had formally ended, that the Zionists went on the offensive, hoping to achieve a fait accompli by seizing as much of Palestine as possible.

As the fighting increased, terrorist activity on both sides escalated dramatically as well. Although atrocities and massacres were not unusual, the barbarous extermination of the village of Deir Yassin by Irgun and Stern Gang terrorists became symbolic to much of the population of the kind of war it was fighting and the type of enemy it was opposing. Despite the public disavowal by Ben-Gurion and the Jewish Agency, the impression left behind was not easily erased, especially given the fact that Deir Yassin had been a peaceful village and had deliberately tried to stay out of the war. [25] 

20 Those who distinguish phases include Avnery, Childers ("The Wordless Wish"), Rony Gabbay in A Pollitical Study of the Arab-Jewish Con7flict (Geneva: Librarie E. Droz, 1959), and William Polk, David Stamler and Edmund Asfour in Backdrop to Tragedy - The Struggle for Palestine (Boston: Beacon Hill Press, 1957).

21 Polk, Stamler, Asfour, p. 290.

22 This movement of upper and middle-class Palestinians is discussed in Gabbay, p. 65, and Schectman, p. 5. It must be emphasized that these early departees confidently expected the situation to improve with either the entry of the Arab armies to put down Zionist activity or the reimposition of British mandatory authority. The fact that at no time was it considered that Palestine might fall to the Zionists will be elaborated on below.

23 Avnery, p. 221; Gabbay, p. 68, and Childers, "The Wordless Wish," p. 181. 

24 See, for example, David Ben-Gurion, Israel: A Personal History (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1971), pp. 66-7 3.

25 The mounting level of violence and its effect on the population is discussed in Avnerv. p 223; Polk, Stamler, Asfour, p. 291, and Childers, "The Wordless Wish," pp. 182-85.

2. Tiga Fase  

Eksodus Palestina dimulai segera setelah Resolusi Pembagian PBB disahkan pada 29 November 1947, dan berlanjut bahkan setelah Perjanjian Gencatan Senjata ditandatangani antara Israel dan negara-negara Arab pada awal hingga pertengahan 1949. Mustahil memahami eksodus ini tanpa membaginya dalam fase-fase tertentu: siapa yang pergi, apa motivasi mereka, dan siapa yang menghendaki mereka keluar pada setiap fase. Meskipun terdapat tumpang tindih, hampir semua penulis yang membagi fase sepakat membaginya sebagai berikut: Fase Pertama, dari 29 November 1947 hingga pertengahan Maret 1948; Fase Kedua, dari akhir Maret hingga 15 Mei 1948; dan Fase Ketiga, sejak 15 Mei 1948 dan seterusnya. [20]  

Pada fase pertama, jumlah orang Palestina yang pergi masih kecil bila dibandingkan dengan total populasi yang akhirnya mengungsi. Perkiraan tertinggi menyebut angka 30.000, tetapi dibandingkan dengan total sekitar 700.000, jelas ini hanya gelombang kecil. [21] Sebagian besar sumber sepakat bahwa pergerakan ini terutama berasal dari kalangan atas dan menengah Palestina, yang motivasinya adalah untuk sementara waktu menjauh dari kekacauan yang makin membesar di Palestina. Telah dicatat bahwa orang-orang Arab kaya pernah mengambil “liburan panjang” ke Lebanon atau Mesir dalam pertempuran 1936–39. Dengan adanya pilihan ini, tidak mengherankan jika banyak yang memiliki kesempatan untuk pergi memilih melakukannya lagi. [22]  

Dalam periode yang sama, Zionis mungkin memiliki motivasi untuk mencegah eksodus menjadi meluas. Mereka ingin membuktikan kepada opini dunia bahwa Resolusi Pembagian masuk akal dan dapat dijalankan. Keraguan mulai muncul baik di Inggris maupun Amerika Serikat mengenai kebijakan menyerahkan hampir setengah Palestina kepada Zionis—wilayah yang masih dihuni 46 persen penduduk Arab. Reaksi keras orang Arab terhadap Rencana Pembagian serta kesediaan penduduk lokal untuk melawan menimbulkan keraguan di PBB dan di tempat lain, sesuatu yang ingin segera dihapuskan oleh Zionis. Namun dalam telaah tulisan-tulisan, terdapat laporan yang saling bertentangan tentang tindakan Zionis. Avnery dan Gabbay menyatakan bahwa ketika situasi semakin memburuk, Zionis mengambil posisi bertahan. Sementara Childers berpendapat bahwa bahkan pada titik ini, penduduk sudah diteror dengan siaran radio yang melemahkan semangat serta peringatan-peringatan lainnya. Bagaimanapun juga, dapat dikatakan dengan aman bahwa pada fase pertama ini Zionis tidak mendorong emigrasi besar-besaran. [23]  

Fase pertama berakhir dengan pengumuman Amerika Serikat kepada PBB bahwa mereka mengubah dukungan dari rencana pembagian menjadi sistem perwalian bagi Palestina. Meski tulisan-tulisan berbeda dalam menjelaskan motivasi eksodus pada fase berikutnya, jelaslah bahwa pada periode ini, akhir Maret hingga pertengahan Mei, eksodus utama pertama terjadi.  

Sumber-sumber tradisional Zionis tidak membedakan fase; namun biasanya mereka mengaitkan periode ini dengan dugaan seruan para pemimpin Arab untuk evakuasi massal. [24] Sebagaimana disebutkan, penelitian Childers telah meruntuhkan banyak argumen ini dengan membuktikan bahwa justru penduduk terus didesak untuk tetap tinggal. Faktanya, pada saat ini, sebelum Mandat resmi berakhir, Zionis sudah melancarkan ofensif, berharap menciptakan fakta di lapangan dengan merebut sebanyak mungkin wilayah Palestina.  

Seiring meningkatnya pertempuran, aksi teror dari kedua belah pihak juga melonjak tajam. Meski kekejaman dan pembantaian bukan hal yang jarang terjadi, pemusnahan brutal desa Deir Yassin oleh teroris Irgun dan Stern Gang menjadi simbol bagi banyak orang Palestina tentang jenis perang yang sedang mereka hadapi dan jenis musuh yang mereka lawan. Walaupun Ben-Gurion dan Badan Yahudi secara publik menyatakan penolakan atas peristiwa itu, kesan yang ditinggalkan tidak mudah dihapus, terlebih mengingat Deir Yassin adalah desa damai yang sengaja berusaha tetap netral dari perang. [25]  

[20] Mereka yang membagi fase antara lain Avnery, Childers (*The Wordless Wish*), Rony Gabbay dalam *A Political Study of the Arab-Jewish Conflict* (Jenewa: Librarie E. Droz, 1959), serta William Polk, David Stamler, dan Edmund Asfour dalam *Backdrop to Tragedy – The Struggle for Palestine* (Boston: Beacon Hill Press, 1957).  
[21] Polk, Stamler, Asfour, hlm. 290.  
[22] Pergerakan kalangan atas dan menengah Palestina ini dibahas dalam Gabbay, hlm. 65, dan Schectman, hlm. 5. Penting dicatat bahwa para perintis eksodus awal ini yakin situasi akan segera membaik, entah dengan masuknya tentara Arab untuk menghentikan aktivitas Zionis atau dengan diberlakukannya kembali otoritas mandat Inggris. Tidak pernah terpikir bahwa Palestina bisa jatuh ke tangan Zionis—hal ini akan dibahas lebih lanjut di bagian berikut.  
[23] Avnery, hlm. 221; Gabbay, hlm. 68; dan Childers, *The Wordless Wish*, hlm. 181.  
[24] Lihat, misalnya, David Ben-Gurion, *Israel: A Personal History* (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1971), hlm. 66–73.  
[25] Meningkatnya tingkat kekerasan dan dampaknya terhadap penduduk dibahas dalam Avnery, hlm. 223; Polk, Stamler, Asfour, hlm. 291; dan Childers, *The Wordless Wish*, hlm. 182–185.